INTEGRATION OF LAND USE AND TRANSPORTATION PLANNING

Transportation means shifting of goods, people and energy in the cheapest way, soonish and surely. To give service opportunities by urban functions suc as residential, working, educational and recreational are also occure thanks to transportation infrastructure in urban scale. Therefore, it can not be denied that the line is a significant part of urban system.  The most preferential aim of the trahsportation planning is providing the accessibility of all functions like that residential, working, industrial, educational and health services, and recreational. In another words, it aims to make conditions more convenient in land use and transportation relations priority.

There is a direct correlation between the allocation of land uses throughout the county and transportation. Transportation planning and land use planning support to each other mainly. The circulation system should be developed in coordination with the various general plan land use elements adopted by the county and cities. As development occurs, the circulation systems are designed to accommodate planned land uses. Transportation planning depends on the circulation elements of these plans for formulating regional plan goals, objectives and policies (www.scrtpa.org).

Land use and transportation planning are related with the each other through many aspects. It can be classified that four main determining factor which are accessibility, location choice, land costs and rents, and users. Especially quantitative methods are explicated that related with transportation and land use integration in this paper.

1. OBJECTIVE AND COMPREHENSION

This research aims to analyse the integration of land use and transportation planning at all urban areas. It includes the steps of searching literatures about the subject, scanning these papers and evaluations of them. This paper purposes to comprehend the basic theorotical knowledges and variable approaches based on this subject. The main methodology that will be used is searching and explicating of articles. Within the context of this paper, it will be discussed that the integration of land use planing and transportation planing. It will be focused on how the two concepts affect eachother and how they plan in the urban.

Figure 1: Interaction of land use and transportation planning.

1. DETERMINING FACTORS OF RELATION BETWEEN THE TRANSPORTATION PLANNING AND LAND USE PLANNING

The relation between transportation planning and land use decisions is a guiding mark of an urban development. According to the users, the environmental quality with land use units is determining factor for the location choice. Development transportation planning obtains this level of quality of environment. In the frame of the interaction between transportation planning and residential areas, accessibility and access distances, location choice, land costs and rents, impacts on users and users’ preferences will be examined with existing theories in this article.

For example; accessibility will be explained with the levels of accessibility. They display how the landuse activities take on a shape with travel links and their accessibility levels. On the other hand location choice will be determined with numerical methods in urban and regional planning. Lowry’s model, Vedia Dökmeci’s multipurpose landuse model (Vedia Dökmeci – Çok Amaçlı Arazi Kullanım Modeli), Hansen Model, Topaz Model and Distribution of Transportation Systems Model are some of the models which will be explained with location choice.

Also, land costs and rents will be featured with some models, too. Some of them are Von Thünen, Wingo, Alonso’s Monocentric Urban Development Models, and some of them are Christaller and Lösch’s Polycentric Urban Development Models. All of these approaches are based on the relationship between land rents and transportation costs. Finally, users’ preferences and impacts on users wil be shown with some examples like students who have home based school trips, workers who have home based work trips and the others who have home based other activities trips.

2.1. ACCESSIBILITY

One of the most important factors of relation between land use and transportation planning is accessibility. Researches show that the accessibility is the most significant determining of land use. It shows that the appropriateness or inaptitude of the integration of an activity with the other activities (Black, 1981). If many activities are located closely and transportation links are sufficient, it provides to high level of accessibility. If the activities are located far from each other and the links are not sufficient, it leads to low level of accessibility (Blunden and Black, 1981).

Figure 2: Accessibility levels (Blunden and Black, 1981).

According to Blunden and Black, accessibility levels divide into four groups.

1. Land use activities are far and travel links are too weak:

If the land use activities are far from eachother and the transportation system which is linked these activities are too weak, lower level accessibility exists. This is the worst alternative in all these compositions.

1. Land use activities are close and travel links are too weak:

Considered the close activities and too weak travel links, there are mid level accessibility appears. Although the travel links are too weak, proximity of land use activities is a reducing motivation.

1. Land use activities are far and travel links are very strong:

Contrary to the clause taking place the clause above, if land use activities are far from eachother but travel links are very strong, mid level accessibility exists. Eventhough the distance between the activities is great, situation of the travel links is the determining factor on the accessibility level.

1. Land use activities are close and travel links are very strong:

The best level is the higher level accessibility comes into being close land use activities and very strong travel links.

2.2. LOCATION CHOICE

Location choice is one of the most important determining factors about the relation of the transportation planning and land use activities decisions. Beacuse many factors are put into the play with the location decisions like travel costs, travel distances, convenience of travel links. There are many articles, methods and social and mathematical models which explained the determining factor named location choice according to relation between transport systems and laduse activity planning. In this title, all these components will be interpreted especially on the numerical models  in urban and regional planning called Lowry’s model, Vedia Dökmeci’s multipurpose landuse model (Vedia Dökmeci’nin Çok Amaçlı Arazi Kullanım Modeli), Hansen Model, Topaz Model and Distribution of Transportation Systems Model.

Modelling of residential and working areas and location choice and size of them are the most common applications about the land use modelling. Location choice of residential and working areas is the most fundamental determinings on distribution of transportation demand. Therefore, it is very necessary factor in transportation planning process. Not only the physical planning is effective on decisions, but also socio-economic factors such as level of income, developments of life standarts, population and occupation moves are effective. Especially, in developing countries, socio-economic factors are more impressive than physicals. It can not be denied that the effect of transportation on urban land use decisions. For instance; if a new airport is built in a city, new usage will develop on its closer environment. Depending on changes of activity system, some models were improved. One of them is Lowry’s Model. This model analyzes that distribution of population, commerce and service occupation based on accessibility of residential and working areas. The diagram of the Lowry’s model is seen above.

Figure 3: Lowry’s model diagram.

Model has three main functions. One of them is assessment the family workers population and workers for services which they need. The other is assessment the residential area population and spatial distribution of service workers. And finally, it asigns that the amount of transportation according to new settlement arrangement. There are some formulas about this model.

1. The population of the family whose the workers,

N (1) = f

1. The number of transportation system which serves to number of main labor force,

1. Service functions,

N (2) = f (1) = faN(1) = a

1. Labor force who serves to the population in the city,

(2) = aN (2) =

1. General equilibrium,

(m) =

1. Total labor force of system,

E =

E =

Furthermore, transportation systems are determining factor for the location choice of the industrial buildings. In transportation system, economy of scale development provides the urban ang regional development. Producers’ primary purpose is to maximize their profits. Also, considered the formation of firms which attend to costs of transportation, they aim is to minimize these costs for the location choice. Especially supplying and distributing the goods have gravity for them.

The firms tend to raw materials want to set uf a factory near the raw materials. Because it is obvious that huge amount of material using and various dimensions of productions exist. Therefore, it is necessary that to minimize the input transportation cost. On the other hand, the firms tend to market are in the settlement which is near the market area (Sullivan, 1999: 51). It wants to be near the raw materials or market place, transportation system is determining factor its location.

Another model which explains the land use and transportation planning quantitatively is Vedia Dökmeci’s Multipurpose Land Use Model (Vedia Dökmeci – Çok Amaçlı Arazi Kullanım Modeli). A city has different functions which served many purposes and many effects on eachother. The organization of the city has relation networks about these functions. For example, shopping malls want to be close with customers, first of all. Industrial factories want to be close with labor force sources and the other firms. On the other hand people want to be close with their works, schools, homes and shopping malls.

There are two main aims of this model. Provide to maximum efficiency and minimize to transportation costs. Rents and accessibility matrixes are defined in the model which is made with activity components. This model obtains to decide to most effective alternative. A city which has gird transportation links, an equation desined. This equation serves the maximum efficiency.

Max z =

Z is the total revenue which gained from landuse activities there.  is the interrelation between the i and j alnduse activities. And,  is the distance between i and j landuse activities.

The other purpose that affects the land use decisions is minimizing the transportation costs. With this purpose, ıt is aimed that transportation system between the other activities in the city should be minimized. Every location of land use activity unit is related to the location of others. It is chosen that minimizing the human and propety acting between these units. With this purpose an equation was done.

E (a) =

E (a) is the total efficiency of the alternative,  is the co-efficient which shows the importance of k purpose,  is efficiency of (a) alternative according to k puroıse and finally n is the number of purpose.

The other model is Hansen Model which explains the location choice of residental areas with the other land use activities and related with the transportation system. There are many different variables for explaining how the landuse activities aspecially residental areas develop, and what kinds of effects on it.

According to this model, demands for residental units are equal the empty areas there and accessibility index. People want to equilibrium between land use planning and travel costs, generally.

=

is population on j city,  is total demand in the city,  is empty areas in j city and  is the accessibility index.

The other model which is the related to location choice about relation between transportation system and land use activities is TOPAZ meaned the Technics of the Modelling Land Use and Transportation System Together.This model assignes the optimum transportation links with using traditional transportation planning and land use datas. Fort he location choice of the land use activities, it must be known how much the road create traffic congestion, how much residental unit and working unit built, and what the development effects are on works. There are many sub-groups in the city and all demands are different according to this. Topaz model consists of different sub-groups. First of all it is assesed that the dimensions of land use activity and transportation link which served this activity. The alternative transportation links develop and one of them chose according to cos-benefit analysis.

The last model is Transportation Distribution Model. This model asignes that how the transportation system which caused by basing point in the city, diffuses the other points. The transportation between two basing points is used as average of the times on the dense hours or transportation value per a day. Generally a gravity model uses to calculate the distribution of transportation. This model is;

is the number of outgoing people to j region from i region,  is transportation emanated from i region,  is transportation and labor force to j region from the other regions,  is distance between i and j regions, and a is the emphasis which affects to regional distribution.

2.3. LAND COSTS AND RENTS

The other important factor that affect to transportation and land use planning is land costs and rents. There are many models which explain the relation between transportation system and land use planning. We know any models does not consists of all inputs in the city and any model is not adequate this relation. However, this section some models will be interpreted about land costs and rents. We used the numerical models to explain the location choice above, th other social models will be used to explain the land costs and rents about the interrelation between transportation system and land use planning.

About the modelling of land costs and rents many studies were exist. Some of them are Von Thünen, Wingo, Alonso’s Monocentric Urban Development Models, and some of them are Christaller and Lösch’s Polycentric Urban Development Models. All of these approaches are based on the relationship between land rents and transportation costs.

Figure 4: Transportation and urban land rents relation (Alonso, 1964).

For instance; according to this model, all kind of the job opportunities in the city centre and at least one member of a family have to trip to the city centre for working. Also the trips which for out of the working purpose have an unimportant value in the portion of the local transportation system. Therefore, the alternative costs of the trips are accepted zero’0’. Through these assumptions fix the factors which are out of the costs of the trip, trip costs are determining factor on the location choice of residential areas. Therefore, all of the households go in for a competition to position in the central area for minimizing the costs of the transportation.

Figure 5: Offered rents functions and land uses in monocentric urban model (O’Sullivan,     1996).

According to Marin and Altıntaş, the function of the relationship between travel costs and residential costs shows the people’s demands for the living in the different places of city. The functiosn of the residential costs have to be a negative curve for the locational equilibrium. Travel costs fall to the central area, but the ground rents rise at the same time. Considered the shape, the monocentric city theory predicts the negative relationship between the distance to center and the rent which arises from land use. In Polycentric Urban Areas, intersection of roads and centers cause to changing of land rents.

Figure 6: Urban land use and land rents profile (Kılınçaslan, 2002).

Furthermore, built spaces and parcels and price of land are clear variances on land values. (Fejarang, 1993)

2.4. USERS

While the land use locations affect the users, user preferences are affected on land use activity locations. This interaction is duble option.

When the households choice the different travel patterns, the travel costs and travel times are very effective through the family budget. On the other hand, for the location choice, the travel time is more determining than the distance and households can be decided the settling out of the city called suburban areas. The development of the public transportation system can accelerate this process and the movement of the households can increase. Several researhes show that with the household characteristics, house and neighbourliness quality is very drastic on these movements, too. Especially in the developed countries, it is obviously seen that the role of the public policies on the residental areas, income level and differences of household types speed up this movements.

For instance students can be analyzed as home based school transporters. Empirical results indicate that the characteristics of child like age, gender, and ethnicity, and employment and work flexibility characteristics of the parents have strong impacts on the mode choice decisions. In addition, the impacts of some of these attributes on the choice of mode to school are different from the corresponding impacts on the choice of mode from school. The distance between home and school is found to strongly and negatively impact the choice of walking to and from school, with the impact being stronger for walking to school. Furthermore, the distance and school location has a big role for children’s mode choice for the school trip. The analysis shows that walk travel time is the most policy-relevant factor affecting the decision to walk to school. The spatial distribution of schools and residences will not be enough to change travel behavior.

Another factor is safety for mode choice of students. Parents express concern about traffic dangers and the risk of abduction or harassment (Martin and Carlson, 2005). Planners suggest a need for better integration of land use, transportation, and school planning. Including children’s distance from school as a planning criterion could be an effective way to change community design and encourage walking.

1. INTEGRATING LAND-USE AND TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

There are some determining factor about relation between land use activities and transportation planning. We explained them in the sections above. Together with these, we explain these determining factors about some zones that residental and working areas, industrial areas, and educational areas.

Figure 7: Daily activities determining on transportation planning.

3.1. RESIDENTIAL AND WORKING AREAS

The relation between transportation planning and residental and working areas is a guiding mark of an urban development. According to the users, the environmental quality with residental units is determining factor for the location choice. Development transportation planning obtains this level of quality of environment. In the frame of the interaction between transportation planning and residental areas, accessibility and access distances, land costs, impacts on users and users’ preferences will be examined.

Beginning with the question that how the accessibility factor of transportation planning affects the residental and working areas, variance of the users’ preferences will be analyzed. Firstly, the proximity to transportation systems is very effective factor on the users’ preferences. Goods and services are obtained every unit of the residential and working areas efficiently. Also, the users’ preferences relate to travels between home and work directly in accordance with the time and place conception. Related with this subtitle, the researches which are done by Mayo, Friedmann and Lerman display the households’ car ownership decisions are connected with location of the residential areas. (Mehmet Marin, Hakan Altıntaş- Konut yer seçimi ulaşım etkileşim teorileri).

American sociologists, Kasarda and Wilson, claimed that the major distances between residential areas and working areas and transportation system lead to work-home disequilibrium. These men developed the theory called Spatial Mismatch (Mekansal Uyumsuzluk) which is about the disequilibrium and carrying with negative effects on socio-economic situations. This theory explains that how the residental areas and business districts are effected by transportation system. For example; the unefficiency of the transportation system like inaccessible areas, narrow roads, inadequate parking areas leads to crappy business opportunities and maladept housing units in the old cities, and as a result suburban localities appears and residental areas exit from the business district with own transportation system, and the distance between these two landuses grows.

Another factor which is suitable to understand the relationship of the transportation system with residential areas and working areas is landcosts. The most important theories which trying to understand this interrelation can be grouped as Technical Theories (Urban Movement Systems), Economical Theories (Urban as a Market), and Social and Sociological Theories ( Community and Urban Space).(Mehmet Marin, Hakan Altıntaş- Konut yer seçimi ulaşım etkileşim teorileri). These models can be identified in different groups by theselves.

For instance economical models are dividen in some groups and monocentric city model is the most important to understand relation between residental areas and working areas with transportation system.  The monocentric city model is applied in the residential and working landuse. According to this model, all kind of the job opportunities in the city centre and at least one member of a family have to trip to the city centre for working. Also the trips which for out of the working purpose have an unimportant value in the portion of the local transportation system. Therefore, the alternative costs of the trips are accepted zero’0’.

Through these assumptions fix the factors which are out of the costs of the trip, trip costs are determining factor on the location choice of residential areas. Therefore, all of the households go in for a competition to position in the central area for minimizing the costs of the transportation.

3.2. INDUSTRIAL AREAS

The cities which have the major ındustry and productıon development, called ındustrıal cities. (Keleş, 1997: 30). Manufactoring cities or industrial cities need huge transportation systems. Because the technologies of the transportation system affects the location choices of the industrial plants. These industrial buildings which producing for distant market territory, require advanced accessibility to ensure raw material and to market their products. (İsbir, Ankara: 12). It’s imperious that for consuming products, accesssibility of markets have to be strong. (Sabuncuoğlu, Tokal, 1987: 193).

If a city have strong transportation system, it’s economic structure develops obviously. Especially through the public transportation obtains rapid carriage and low cost per unit in the city or out of the city; competitive advantage will appear. Costs of transportation will head in this competitive.

On the other hand, transportation systems are determining factor for the location choice of the industrial buildings. In transportation system, economies of scale development provide the urban ang regional development. Commercial houses sum the common properties and carry them to transportation points by using express highway, sea transport, railway transport and the others. (Sullivan, 1999: 20). Producers’ primary purpose is to maximize their profits. Also, considered the formation of firms which attend to costs of transportation, they aim is to minimize these costs for the location choice. Especially supplying and distributing the goods have gravity for them.

The firms tend to raw materials want to set uf a factory near the raw materials. Because it is obvious that huge amount of material using and various dimensions of productions exist. Therefore, it is necessary that to minimize the input transportation cost. On the other hand, the firms tend to market are in the settlement which is near the market area. (Sullivan, 1999: 51). It wants to be near the raw materials or market place, transportation system is determining factor its location.

3.3. EDUCATIONAL AREAS

One of the most important points of integration is between the educational areas and transportation system. This title contributes towards an overall understanding of the school-travel behaviour of children and the related interdependencies among the travel patterns of parents and children. In the last years, understanding of the activity-travel patterns of children is becoming increasingly important to various policy makers such as transportation planners, urban planners, public-health officials, and the other diciplines. (Boarnet et al. 2005; DiGuiseppi et al. 1997; Fischbeck and Huey 2003; McDonald 2005; and McMillan 2003).

Empirical results indicate that the characteristics of child like age, gender, and ethnicity, and employment and work flexibility characteristics of the parents have strong impacts on the mode choice decisions. In addition, the impacts of some of these attributes on the choice of mode to school are different from the corresponding impacts on the choice of mode from school. The distance between home and school is found to strongly and negatively impact the choice of walking to and from school, with the impact being stronger for walking to school.

The school travel is a critical component of the overall daily travel behaviour of children and it is big factor for understanding the importance of relationship between the transport and land use planning. Before the making a plan, policy makers should recognize the habits and preferences of children.

In briefly it is obvious that the locations of schools, parents and childrens preferences, costs and distances of schools are more determining factors in the relationship between landuse and transportation planing.

1. CONCLUSION

Integration of land use and transportation planning was evaluated in a framework that includes this relation’s determining factors that are accessibility, location choice, land costs and rents, and users. Also these factors were explained with the urban zones such as residential, working, industrial, and educational areas. The results of this assessment not only display that the effects of land use activities on the transportation system, but also display that the effects of trabsportation system onthe land use activities.  There are many components of land use such as structure, size, capacity, locate on urban system, function, relation with the other functions, accessibility level, and socio-ecomonic frame that affect to transport system directly or indirectly. Moreover, transportation system affects to land use activity sigcificantly. Decision of transportation investment makes an effect called multiplier effect (çarpan etkisi) on lands, initially. After the beginning of usage, value of lands which are around the road increases. By creating new commercial areas, it makes an effect raises to production.

Figure 8: Integration of between the components of transportation and land use planning (Lemberg, 1977).

In this figure, it can be seen easily that the circulation of the main components of the land use and transportation factors. According to this sceheme, land use decisions, trips, transportation necessities, travel links, accessibility, and land costs are in a continuous circulation. It always circles in this integration process.